AP Biology Outline for Behavior
PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR:
1. Stereotyped and Learned Behavior
2. Biorhythms
3. Societies: social insects, birds, and primates
4. Social Behavior
A. Communication and signals
B. Dominance Hierarchy
C. Territoriality
D. Aggression
E. Courtship
F. Parental Behavior
Essay Questions
1970:
In recent years, studies of animal behavior have become increasingly important.
Answer either a. or b. below.
a. Describe experiments that demonstrate how honeybees
communicate the location of a food source to other members of the hive.
b. Discuss several examples and the possible biological functions of territoriality in the vertebrates other than man.
Define and explain the role of each of the following in social behavior:
a. Territoriality
b. Dominance hierarchies
c. Courtship behavior
Describe and give an example of each of the following. Include in your discussion the selective advantage of each.
a. Pheromones
b. Mimicry
c. Stereotyped Behavior (instinct)
Describe releasers, imprinting, and communication, as each of these terms relates to animal behavior. You may include in your answer a discussion of the classical studies of Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and Karl vonFrisch.
AP Biology Outline for Biochemistry
CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIVING SYSTEMS
1. Atoms, molecules, bonding, pH
2. Energetics: Free energy change and entropy
3. Structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, organic acids, and nucleic acids
ENZYMES:
1. Enzyme-substrate complex
2. Role of coenzymes, inorganic cofactors,
prosthetic groups, and vitamins
3. Factors affecting the rate and/or direction of
enzyme reactions
Essay Questions
1965:
Biologists and biochemists have made outstanding progress within the past quarter century in elucidating principles and structures which govern the activities of living matter.
These areas of progress include:
A. The structure and code of the DNA molecule
B. The use of radioactive isotopes as tracers in biological processes
C.The citric acid cycle and its relationship to mitochondria
D.The use of electron microscopy in revealing the structure of the cell
Discuss any one of these developments and its impact on biological thought and progress. Your answer should include:
a. a brief account of the development
b. the names of the most prominent investigators involved
c. the nature of its impact on biology
Suppose that you have isolated an extract from a tissue and you
have found that the extract speeds up the rate of a particular reaction.
What kind of information would you need to demonstrate that the substance
responsible for increasing the rate of this reaction is an enzyme? Explain
how this information would indicate that the catalytic effect is due to an
enzyme.
Proteins functioning as enzymes exhibit precise specifications.
Discuss the levels of structural organization within proteins which are
responsible for specific molecular interaction.
1972:
A class of biology students performed an experiment on the digestion
of starch by salivary amylase. Each student determined the length of time
required for different dilutions of his saliva to digest completely a standard
concentration of starch. Iodine was used to test for the presence of starch.
The results obtained by some of the class are summarized in the table below.
TIME REQUIRED FOR THE DISAPPEARANCE OF STARCH WITH VARIOUS
SALIVA DILUTIONS
Dilutions (saliva: H2O)
Student 1:9 (10%) 1:19 (5%) 1:49 (2%) 1:99 (1%)
A 45 seconds 50 seconds 100 seconds 1 35 seconds
B (no end point) ----------------------------
C 90 seconds 100 seconds 200 seconds 270 seconds
D 260 seconds 300 seconds 600 seconds 800 seconds
a. Present the data for Student A in graphic form.
b. Carefully examine the data collected by the four students above and state as many conclusions as you can that are supported by these data.
c. Assuming there have been no errors in techniques, form as many hypotheses as you can to explain the differences observed.
d. Design one experiment to test the validity of one hypothesis.
Clearly state what data you would want to collect in this experiment to
test your hypothesis.
1973:
Hypotheses derived from laboratory experiments and field observations have been advanced to explain the origin of life on Earth. Starting with a probable prelife environment, describe the formation and evolution of the various trophic forms (nutrition types) up to and including unicellular organisms.
Describe at least one experiment whose results support one of these scientific hypotheses.
1980:
Discuss the lock-and-key theory of enzyme-substrate interaction giving a specific example to illustrate the theory. Include in your discussion the effects of each of the following:
a. Substrate concentration
b. pH shifts
c. Temperature shifts
d. Competitive inhibition
1981:
Discuss the biological importance of each of the following organic compounds in relation to cellular structure and function in plants and animals.
a. Carbohydrates
b. Proteins
c. Lipids
d. Nucleic acids
Describe the chemical compositions and configuration of enzymes
and discuss the factors that modify enzyme structure and/or function.
After an enzyme is mixed with its substrate, the amount of product
formed is determined at 10-second intervals for 1 minute. Data from this
experiment are shown below.
Time (sec) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Product 0.0 0.25 0.50 0.70 0.80 0.85 0.85
Formed (mg)
Draw a graph of these data and answer the following questions.
a. What is the initial rate of this enzymatic reaction?
b. What is the rate after 50 seconds? Why is it different from the initial rate?
c. What would be the effect on product formation if the enzyme were heated to a temperature of 100 oC for 10 minutes before repeating the experiment? Why?
d. How might altering the substrate concentration affect the rate of the reaction? Why?
e. How might altering the pH affect the rate of reaction? Why?
Carbon is a very important element in living systems.
a. Describe the various characteristics of the carbon atom that makes possible the building of a variety of biological molecules.
b. Explain how reactions involving carbon-containing compounds can contribute to the greenhouse effect.
c. The following structures are examples of two different categories of biological compounds. Describe how each category of compounds is important to the structure and function of living systems.
FIX THIS SECTION!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Category I Category II
+NH3 HO
CH2 +NH3 - C - CO-
CH2 CH2
O SHO = P - O-
O
CH2 - CH - CH2
O O
C = O C = O
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH
CH2 CH
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH3 CH3
Enzymes are biological catalysts.
a. Relate the chemical structure of an enzyme to its specificity and catalytic activity.
b. Design a quantitative experiment to investigate the influence of pH or temperature on the activity of an enzyme.
c. Describe what information concerning the structure of an enzyme could be inferred from your experiment.
The unique properties (characteristics) of water make life possible on Earth. Select three properties of water and:
a. for each property, identify and define the property and explain it in terms of the physical/chemical nature of water
b. for each property, describe one example of how the property affects the functioning of living organisms.
AP Biology Outline for Cellular Biology
CELLS:
1. Historical Development of the Cell Concept
2. Cell Structure and Function
A. Techniques of biochemistry, centrifugation,
and microscopy (light and electron) in
understanding cells
B. Structure and Function of Cell Organelles
C. The passage of materials across cell membrane
3. Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
4. Viruses and their relationship with cells
CELL DIVISION:
1. Structure of Chromosomes
2. Mitosis and Meiosis in Plants and Animals
3. Cytokinesis in Plants and Animals;
Control of Cell Division
Essay Questions
1959:
Some of the differentiated structures of plant and animal cells are cell walls, plasma membranes, chromosomes, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and spindle fibers. Discuss four of these with respect to:
1)function and 2) physico-chemical nature
1960:
Discuss each of the following, writing a paragraph or two for each one:
a. the structure and role of the cell membrane
b. the formation of cell walls in plant cells
c. the structure and role of chloroplasts
d. the structure and role of mitochondria
1963:
a. Make a schematic diagram of a generalized plant or animal cell, showing the structure of its parts as revealed by electronmicroscopy. Make a diagram the size of a full page and label it completely, indicating whether the cell is from a plant or an animal.
b. List the parts included in your diagram and describe briefly the activities or functions thought to be performed by each one.
1964:
a. Describe the structure of the cell membrane as revealed by electronmicroscopy and iochemical studies.
b. Explain how the passage of substances through the cell membrane is regulated by the physical and chemical properties of the substances involved.
c. Explain how the concentration of a solute on either side of a semi-permeable membrane affects osmosis.
1965:
Biologists and biochemists have made outstanding progress within the past quarter
century in elucidating principles and structures which govern the activities of living
matter. These areas of progress include:
A. The structure and code of the DNA molecule
B. The use of radioactive isotopes as tracers in biological processes
C. The citric acid cycle and its relationship to mitochondria
*D. The use of electron microscopy in revealing the structure of the cell
Discuss any one of these developments and its impact on biological thought and
progress.
Your answer should include:
a. a brief account of the development
b. the names of the most prominent investigators involved
c. the nature of its impact on biology
1969:
Suppose a team of scientists is examining the cells of a newly discovered species. They
observe under the light microscope an organelle that appears to be different from any
that has been described before. Assume that you are director of the research team.
Describe the methods that you would have the team use to determine whether the struc-
ture is a mitochondrion, ribosome, lysosome, nucleolus, or indeed a new organelle.
Discuss the advantages and limitations of each method in revealing the role of the
unknown organelle in the living cell.
1970:
Electronmicroscope studies have revealed the probable structure of plasma membranes
and the membranes of various cell components.
a. Describe the kinds of observations and experiments that are used to study
the basic structure and molecular components of these membranes.
b. Discuss mechanisms by which materials are thought to move across
membranes.
c. Discuss the significance of membranes in the biochemical events which
occur
in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
1975:
All living cells exploit their environment for energy and for molecular components in
order to maintain their internal environments. Describe the roles of several different
membrane systems in these activities.
1978:
Describe a model of the cell membrane of a eukaryotic cell and discuss different ways
in which substances move across the membrane.
1981:
Describe the structural arrangement and function of the membranes associated with
each of the following eukaryotic organelles:
a. Mitochondrion
b. Endoplasmic Reticulum
c. Chloroplast
d. Golgi Apparatus
Describe the fluid-mosaic model of a plasma membrane. Discuss the role of the membrane
in the movement of materials through by each of the following processes.
a. Active Transport
b. Passive Transport
Describe the structure of a generalized eukaryotic plant cell. Indicate the ways in which
a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell would differ in structure from this generalized
eukaryotic plant cell.
Discuss the process of cell division in animals. Include a description of mitosis and
cytokinesis, and of the other phases of the cell cycle. Do not include meiosis.
A laboratory assistant prepared solutions of 0.8 M, 0.6 M, 0.4 M, and 0.2 M sucrose,
but forgot to label them. After realizing the error, the assistant randomly labeled the
flasks containing these four unknown solutions as flask A, flask B, flask C, and flask D.
Design an experiment, based on the principles of diffusion and osmosis, that the assistant
could use to determine which of the flasks contains each of the four unknown solutions.
Include in your answer (a) a description of how you would set up and perform the
experiment; (b) the results you would expect from your experiment; and (c) an
explanation of those results based on the principles involved. (Be sure to clearly
state the principles addressed in your discussion.)
Membranes are important structural features of cells.
(a) Describe how membrane structure is related to the transport of materials
across a membrane.
(b) Describe the role of membranes in the synthesis of ATP in either cellular
respiration or photosynthesis.
Discuss how cellular structures, including the plasma membrane, specialized endoplasmic
reticulum, cytoskeletal elements, and mitochondria, function together in the contraction of
skeletal muscle cells.
Energy transfer occurs in all cellular activities. For 3 of the following 5 processes
involving energy transfer, explain how each functions in the cell and give an example.
Explain how ATP is involved in each example you choose.
Cellular movement
Active transport
Synthesis of molecules
Chemiosmosis
Fermentation
AP Biology Outline for Cellular Respiration
ENERGY TRANFORMATIONS IN CELLS:
ANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC RESPIRATION
A. Chemical structure and function of ATP
1) Energy transfer
2) Coupled reactions
3) Chemiosmosis
B. Pathways of anaerobic respiration
1) Glycolysis
2) Fermentation
C. Pathways of aerobic respiration
1) Krebs cycle
2) Electron transport system
D. Sites of respiratory enzymes
E. Factors affecting the rate of respiration
Essay Questions
1963:
Compare the intermediate steps in the fermentation of a molecule of sugar by yeast with
respiration in a muscle tissue cell. Include in your answer the role of ATP formed in each
of these two processes.
1965:
Biologists and biochemists have made outstanding progress within the past quarter
century in elucidating principles and structures which govern the activities of living
matter. These areas of progress include:
A. The structure and code of the DNA molecule
B. The use of radioactive isotopes as tracers in biological processes
*C. The citric acid cycle and its relationship to mitochondria
D. The use of electron microscopy in revealing the structure of the cell
Discuss any one of these developments and its impact on biological thought and
progress. Your answer should include:
a. a brief account of the development
b. the names of the most prominent investigators involved
c. the nature of its impact on biology
1967:
When a cell is metabolizing in the absence of oxygen and it is then exposed to an
environment containing oxygen, a series of oxidation-reduction reactions is initiated which
enables the cell to increase its activities.
a. Outline the oxidation-reduction reactions that are initiated under these
conditions and indicate the point at which molecular oxygen interacts with
the oxidative system.
b. Explain how the cell derives additional energy by switching from
non-oxidative to oxidative metabolism.
Explain how the molecular reactions of cellular respiration transform the chemical bond
energy of Krebs cycle substrates into the more readily available bond energy of ATP.
Include in your discussion the structure of the mitochondrion and show how it is
important to the reactions of the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain.
Describe the similarities and differences between the biochemical pathways of aerobic
respiration and photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells. Include in your discussion the major
reactions, the end products, and energy transfers.
Explain what occurs during the Krebs (citric acid) cycle and electron transport by
describing the following:
a. The location of the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in the
mitochondria.
b. The cyclic nature of the reactions in the Krebs cycle.
c. The production of ATP and reduced coenzymes during the cycle.
d. The chemiosmotic production of ATP during electron transport.
The results below are measurements of cumulative oxygen consumption by germinating
and dry seeds. Gas volume measurements were corrected for changes in temperature and
pressure.
Cumulative Oxygen Consumed (mL)
______________________________________________
Time (minutes) 0 10 20 30 40
______________________________________________
22o C Germinating Seeds 0.0 8.8 16.0 23.7 32.0
Dry Seeds 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1
______________________________________________
10o C Germinating Seeds 0.0 2.9 6.2 9.4 12.5
Dry Seeds 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.2
______________________________________________
a. Using the graph paper provided, plot the results for the germinating seeds at
22o C and 0o C.
b. Calculate the rate of oxygen consumption for the germinating seeds at 22o C,
using the time interval between 10 and 20 minutes.
c. Account for the differences in oxygen consumption observed between:
1) germinating seeds at 22o C and at 10o C;
2) germinating seeds and dry seeds.
d. Describe the essential features of an experimental apparatus that could be
used to measure oxygen consumption by a small organism.
Explain why each of these features is necessary.
Membranes are important structural features of cells.
(a) Describe how membrane structure is related to the transport of materials
across a membrane.
(b) Describe the role of membranes in the synthesis of ATP in either cellular
respiration or photosynthesis.
Energy transfer occurs in all cellular activities. For 3 of the following 5 processes involving
energy transfer, explain how each functions in the cell and give an example. Explain how
ATP is involved in each example you choose.
Cellular movement
Active transport
Synthesis of molecules
Chemiosmosis
Fermentation
CONCEPT ESSAYS:
1992: L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
Biological recognition is important in many processes at the molecular, cellular,
and organismal levels. Select three of the following, and for each of the three that
you have chosen, explain how the process of recognition occurs and give an
example.
a. Organisms recognize others as members of their own species.
b. Neurotransmitters are recognized in the synapse.
c. Antigens trigger antibody responses.
d. Nucleic acids are complementary.
e. Target cells respond to specific hormones.
1992: L.PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
Survival depends on the ability of an organism to respond to changes in its
environment. Some plants flower in response to changes in day length. Some
mammals may run or fight when frightened. For both of these examples,
describe the physiological mechanisms involved in the response.
1993: L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
Membranes are important structural features of cells.
(a) Describe how membrane structure is related to the transport
of materials across a membrane.
(b) Describe the role of membranes in the synthesis of ATP in either
respiration or photosynthesis.
1994: L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
Discuss how cellular structures, including the plasma membrane, specialized
endoplasmic reticulum, cytoskeletal elements, and mitochondria, function
together in the contraction of skeletal muscle cells.
1995: L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
The problems of survival of animals on land are very different from those of
survivial of animals in an aquatic environment. Describe four problems associated
with animal survival in terrestrial environments but not in aquatic environments.
For each problem, explain an evolutionary solution
1995: L. PETERSON/AP BIOLOGY
Angiosperms (flowering plants) and vertebrates obtain nutrients from their
environment in different ways:
(A) Discuss the type of nutrition and the nutritional requirements
of angiosperms and vertebrates.
(B) Describe 2 structural adaptations in angiosperms for obtaining
nutrients from the environment. Relate structure to function.
(C) Interdependence in nature is evident in symbiosis. Explain two
symbiotic relationships that aid in nutrient uptake, using examples
from angiosperms and/or vertebrates (Both examples may be angiosperms,
both may be vertebrates, or one may be from each group.)
AP Biology Outline for DNA
CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE GENE
A. Watson-Crick Model of Nucleic Acids
B. Replication of DNA molecule
C. Genetic code and chemical nature of mutation
D. Control of protein synthesis:
transcription and translation
E. Recombinant DNA techniques
F. Gene regulation:
structural and regulatory genes
G. Principles of transformation and transduction
Essay Questions
1960:
Discuss the gene, with regard to structure, duplication, mutation, and
nature of action.
1962:
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA has been described as the chemical basis
of heredity. Discuss present-day concepts regarding its:
a. chemical nature and physical structure
b. mode of duplication
c. relationship to protein synthesis
1965:
Biologists and biochemists have made outstanding progress within the past
quarter century in elucidating principles and structures which govern the
activities of living matter. These areas of progress include the structure
and code of the DNA molecule. Discuss this development and its impact on
biological thought and progress. Your answer should include:
a. a brief account of the development
b. the names of the most prominent investigators involved
c. the nature of its impact on biology
1965:
Discuss the role of each of the following in protein synthesis:
a. soluble or transfer RNA
b. messenger RNA
c. ribosomes
d. ATP
1967:
The formation of Watson-Crick complementary base pairs between single
strands of molecules of nucleic acids occurs in at least three separate reactions.
Discuss each of these reactions from the following points of view:
a. the type of nucleic acids involved
b. the role of each nucleic acid in the duplication of cellular
constituents
1969:
Proteins and nucleic acids are fundamental molecules of the living state.
a. Write word equations for the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids,
using appropriate subunits.
b. A wide variety of macromolecules exists in proteins and nucleic acids.
For each group, explain how it is possible to have such great variety of
structure with a relatively small number of different subunits.
c. Proteins functioning as enzymes exhibit precise specifications. Discuss
the levels of structural organization within proteins which are
responsible for specific molecular interaction.
Describe protein synthesis in terms of molecular structures of the
nucleic acids and using a specific example, explain how a new phenotypic
characteristic may result from a change in DNA.
Proteins are composed of amino acid subunits which form stable
three-dimensional structures.
a. Describe how the genetic instructions coded in DNA are translated into the
primary structure (sequence of amino acid subunits) of a protein molecule.
b. Explain how interactions among the individual amino acid subunits influence
the transformation of the molecule into its three-dimensional structure and
how they stabilize it.
In relation to the chemical nature of the gene, describe:
a. the chemical structure of the gene
b. the replication (self-copying) of the gene
c. gene mutations, including chromosomal aberrations
A portion of a specific DNA molecule consists of the following sequence of
nucleotide triplets:
TAC GAA CTT CGG TCC
This DNA sequence codes for the following short polypeptide:
methionine - leucine - glutamic acid - proline - arginine
Describe the steps in the synthesis of this polypeptide. What would be the effect
of a deletion or an addition in one of the DNA nucleotides? What would be the
effect of a substitution in one of the nucleotides?
Experiments by the following scientists provided critical information concerning
DNA. Describe each classical experiment and indicate how it provided evidence
for the chemical nature of the gene.
a. Hershey and Chase - bacteriophage replication
b. Griffith and Avery - bacterial transformation
c. Meselson and Stahl - DNA replication in bacteria
Describe the operon hypothesis and discuss how it explains the control of
messenger RNA production and the regulation of protein synthesis in
bacterial cells.
Describe the biochemical composition, structure, and replication of DNA.
Discuss how recombinant DNA techniques may be used to correct a point
mutation.
Describe the production and processing of a protein that will be exported from a
eukaryotic cell. Begin with the separation of the messenger RNA from the DNA
template and end with the release of the protein at the plasma membrane.
Describe the steps of protein synthesis, beginning with the attachments of a
messenger RNA molecule to the small subunit of a ribosome and ending with the
release of the polypeptide from the ribosome. Include in your answer a discussion
of how the different types of RNA function in this process.
Biological recognition is important in many processes at the molecular, cellular,
and organismal levels. Select three of the following, and for each of the three that
you have chosen, explain how the process of recognition occurs and give an example.
a. Organisms recognize others as members of their own species.
b. Neurotransmitters are recognized in the synapse.
c. Antigens trigger antibody responses.
d. Nucleic acids are complementary.
e. Target cells respond to specific hormones.
The diagram below shows a segment of DNA with a total length of 4,900 base
pairs. The arrows indicate reaction sites for restriction enzymes (enzyme X
and enzyme Y).
|| || || ||
\/ \/ \/ \/
|-------------------------------------------------------------------
(A) Explain how the principles of gel electrophoresis allow for the separation
of DNA fragments.
(B) Describe the results you would expect from the electrophoretic
separation of fragments from the following treatments of the DNA
segment above. Assume that the digestions occurred under appropriate
conditions and went to completion.
I DNA digested with only enzyme X
II. DNA digested with only enzyme Y
III. DNA digested with enzyme X and enzyme Y combined
IV. Undigested DNA
(C) Explain both of the following.
(1) The mechanism of action of restriction enzymes.
(2) The different results you would expect if a mutation occurred
at the recognition site for enzyme Y.
AP Biology Outline for Ecology
ECOLOGY:
1. HABITAT
A. ABIOTIC FACTORS: CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL
B. BIOTIC FACTORS: SPECIES INTERACTIONS
2. POPULATION GROWTH AND REGULATION
A. LIFE HISTORY: FECUNDITY, SURVIVORSHIP,
MORTALITY, AGE STRUCTURE
B. DENSITY-DEPENDENT AND DENSITY-INDEPENDENT
FACTORS
3. COMMUNITY STRUCTURE, GROWTH, AND REGULATION
A. SUCCESSION AND CLIMAX COMMUNITIES
B. MAJOR BIOMES
4. ENERGY FLOW AND PRODUCTIVITY IN ECOSYSTEMS
A. FOOD CHAINS AND WEBS
B. TROPHIC LEVELS AND PYRAMIDS
C. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY
5. BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES:
NITROGEN, CARBON, PHOSPHORUS, AND WATER
6. HUMAN ECOLOGY:
A. RESOURCES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
B. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS AND
THEIR EFFECTS
Essay Questions
1959:
Starting with an open pond of water or with a bare sand beach, discuss the
natural succession from a pioneer community to a climax community with
respect to:
1) physiographic factors
2) biotic factors
3) the order of some of the successional stages which might be
expected to occur
1961:
Describe the complete cyclic movement of nitrogen within a balanced biotic
community.
1963:
From an ecological standpoint, discuss briefly the interaction of organisms in:
a) the carbon-oxygen cycle
b) a specific food chain
1966:
The retreat of a glacier leaves barren rock and soil that may be low or
lacking in organic material. Characterize the changes that might occur over
a long period of time following the retreat of the glacier. Your answer should
include:
a) physical and chemical changes
b) changes in flora
c) changes in fauna
1966:
A small, upland, temperate-zone lake of 100 acres surface area and a maximum
depth of 10 meters at the middle is created behind an earthfill dam. High land surrounding
the lake is covered with deciduous forest. Springs and a permanent stream flowing into
the lake from a pasture grassland provide a constant supply of water. For the next five
years, the lake and stream remain undisturbed. At the end of the five-year period:
a) what organism could be expected in samples taken from the middle
of the lake?
b) what organisms could be collected from shallow water at the end
of the stream entrance?
c) how, during the five-year period, did the organisms come to the lake,
and why did they thrive there?
1971:
A mature forest community is completely destroyed by fire. Describe the stages
of succession by which this community is restored.
1972:
A very long-term trip into deep space, lasting at least a decade, is being planned.
You have been assigned the responsibility of designing a balanced ecosystem that
will meet the needs of you and several others in the spaceship . Cite the specific
types of organisms that you would take and include the role that each would play
in the ecosystem. (Assume that the problem of temperature control in the
spaceship has been solved.)
1976:
Discuss the web of life in a biological community. Your essay should focus on
energy flow, conversion, and loss in food chains, including the concepts of
trophic levels and pyramids.
1978:
Human beings have altered the environment in a variety of ways. Discuss the
beneficial and harmful modifications of the environment brought about by the
use of the following:
a) Nuclear energy
b) Fertilizers and pesticides
c) Fossil fuels and metals
1979:
Explain and illustrate with one specific example each of the following concepts:
a) competitive exclusion (Gause's principle)
b) ecological succession
c) nutrient (biogeochemical) cycles
1980:
Many areas of North America that were once covered with many small lakes
and ponds have undergone succession and are now continuously covered with
forests. Give a detailed description of the events (biotic and abiotic factors)
that lead to the establishment of a climax forest.
1981:
Define, discuss, and give an example of each of the following close interactions
of species.
a) Predator-prey relationships
b) Commensalism
c) Mutualism
Describe the trophic levels in a typical ecosystem. Discuss the flow of energy
through the ecosystem, the relationship between the different trophic levels,
and the factors that limit the number of trophic levels.
Describe the process of ecological succession from a pioneer community to a
climax community. Include in your answer a discussion of species diversity
and interactions, accumulation of biomass, and energy flow.
Describe the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nitrogen. Trace these elements
from the point of their release from a decaying animal to their incorporation into a
living animal.
Using an example for each, discuss the following ecological concepts.
a) Succession
b) Energy flow between trophic levels
c) Limiting factors
d) Carrying capacity
Living organisms play an important role in the recycling of many elements within
an ecosystem. Discuss how various types of organisms and their biochemical reactions
contribute to the recycling of either carbon or nitrogen in an ecosystem. Include in your
answer one way in which human activity has an impact on the nutrient cycle you have
chosen.
AP Biology Outline for Embryology
EMBRYOLOGY: STARFISH, FROG, CHICK, MAMMAL
A. FERTILIZATION
B. CLEAVAGE, GASTRULATION, GERM LAYERS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES
C. INDUCTION, DETERMINATION, AND DIFFERENTIATION
Essay Questions
1961:
A. Name and describe the origin, function, and mechanism of operation of the
four extraembryonic membranes of a bird.
(Labeled diagrams may be used as aids in explanation.)
B. For three of these membranes of a bird briefly describe one variation in
either development or function in a mammal, such as a human.
1966:
In vertebrates, changes in the mechanisms of fertilization and embryonic
development have been of adaptive value. Compare these mechanisms and
indicate their contribution to the evolutionary success of the following animals:
A. fish
B. amphibian
C. bird
D. mammal
1976:
During development in multicellular organisms, the cells become different from
one another, even though they possess a common genetic heritage. Describe
experiments in several organisms which explore the problem of differentiation
at the gene level, the cell level, or the tissue level, and discuss how these
experiments have aided our understanding of development.
Discuss the processes of cleavage, gastrulation, and neurulation in the frog
embryo; tell what each process accomplishes. Describe an experiment that
illustrates the importance of induction in development.
AP Biology Outline: Evolution
1. DARWIN-WALLACE THEORY AND ITS PREDECESSORS
2. MODERN CONCEPTS OF NATURAL SELECTION
A. POPULATION GENETICS:
HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM AND
MUTATION, GENETIC DRIFT, POLYMORPHISM,
SELECTION
B. SPECIATION
3. ADAPTIVE RADIATION
4. EVOLVED DIVERSITY
A. PHYLOGENY OF ANIMALS AND PROTISTS
B. PHYLOGENY OF MAJOR PLANT GROUPS
C. HOMOLOGY, ANALOGY, CONVERGENCE,
PARALLELISM
5. CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS:
TAXONOMIC SYSTEMS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
Essay Questions
1959:
Discuss how each of the following contributes evidence that evolution has occurred:
a. Paleontology
b. Geographical distribution
c. Biochemical studies
1959:
Each group of organisms has a specific set of adaptations (either in the parent animals
or in the eggs they produce) which helps to insure the survival of sufficient young to
maintain the population. Briefly summarize and compare the structures or other
adaptations bearing on this problem as found in an amphibian, a reptile, a marsupial,
and a placental mammal. What generalizations can be made from these comparisons?
1960:
Although the arthropods began as aquatic animals, the majority have become terrestrial.
Discuss the adaptive modifications in the arthropods for terrestrial existence with
reference to locomotion, reproduction, and development, respiration, and water balance.
1960:
The factors of mutation and isolation are believed to play significant roles in speciation.
For each of these factors discuss:
a. how it may occur
b. the role it plays in speciation
1963:
Discuss the evolution of both land animals and land plants from aquatic ancestors with
respect to their adaptations for:
a. water conservation
b. support
c. embryo protection
1964:
On the archipelago of the Galapagos Islands, which most geologists believe to be of
volcanic origin without ever having had any land connection with the west coast of
South America, Darwin discovered a group of small finches. These birds have since
been classified into more than a dozen species. These birds have differences, particu-
larly in their adaptations for food-getting. It is believed that all these species are
descendants of a single species which migrated from the mainland. On the mainland
there has never been more than a single species even though the rate of mutations
is thought to be the same in both locations.
Explain how each of the following could have played a role in the development of the
many species of Galapagos finches:
a. polyploidy
b. genetic drift
c. geographic isolation
d. unoccupied ecologic niches
e. Explain why the mainland species has not differentiated into more
than one species.
1966:
In the vertebrates, changes in mechanisms of fertilization and embryonic development
have been of adaptive value. Compare these mechanisms and indicate their contribution
to the evolutionary success of the following animals:
a. fish
b. amphibian
c. bird
d. mammal
1966:
The theory of organic evolution is based on interpretations of observations from diverse
areas. Describe the observations from each of the following areas and explain how they
support the theory:
a. paleontology
b. comparative anatomy or embryology
c. biochemistry or genetics
1970:
An interbreeding population sometimes gives rise to two populations. Discuss the
possible roles of each of the following factors in the formation of two distinct species.
a. isolation
b. selection
c. mutation
d. genetic drift (Sewall Wright phenomenon)
1972:
Cite evidence from biochemistry, paleontology, and population genetics that has led
biologists to accept the theory of evolution.
1973:
On the basis of reliable sampling studies made during a 5-year period, the following
observations were made about the turtle populations of two lakes, one 300 miles north
of the other. Indicate and discuss factors that might account for this unequal distribution.
a. Turtles of species A are abundant in the northern lake where turtles of
species B are rare.
b. Turtles of species B are abundant in the southern lake where turtles of
species A are rare.
Hereditary variations are essential to the evolution of populations.
a. Describe the different types of hereditary variability
b. Explain how this variability can lead to the origin and maintenance of species.
1975:
Most mammals live on land. Describe and discuss the evolutionary adaptations that
make mammals better adapted to life on land than amphibians.
1977:
Two geographically isolated populations usually will diverge over a long period of time.
a. Describe how the two populations may become different, including factors
that can account for these differences.
b. Discuss factors that may prevent interbreeding if the two populations ever
again occupy the same area.
1978:
Describe the nature of each of the following and discuss the role of natural selection
in each situation:
a. Industrial melanism
b. DDT resistance in insects
c. Sickle cell anemia and malaria
1979:
Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection had a significant influence on the under-
standing of the evolution of organism. Discuss each of the following:
a. the importance of Darwin's voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle to the development
of his theory;
b. the major points proposed by Darwin in his theory;
c. two major refinements in Darwin's theory that stem from modern findings;
1980:
Discuss the significance of each of the events listed below in the evolution of living things.
a. Primordial reducing atmosphere
b. Origin of photosynthesis
c. Increase in atmospheric oxygen and the development of the ozone layer
d. Origin of eukaryotes
Define, discuss, and give an example of how each of the following isolating mechanisms
contributes to speciation in organisms.
a. Geographical barriers
b. Ecological (including seasonal) isolation
c. Behavioral isolation
d. Polyploidy
Describe the special relationship between the two terms in each of the following pairs.
a. Convergent evolution of organisms and Australia
b. Blood groups and genetic drift
c. Birds of prey and DDT
Describe the modern theory of evolution and discuss how it is supported by evidence
from two of the following three areas:
a. Population genetics
b. Molecular biology
c. Comparative anatomy and embryology
1984:
Describe how the following adaptations have increased the evolutionary success of the
organisms that possess them. Include in your discussion the structure and function
related to each adaptation.
a. C4 metabolism
b. Amniotic egg
c. Four-chambered heart
d. Pollen
Describe the process of speciation. Include in your discussion the factors that may
contribute to the maintenance of genetic isolation.
Do the following with reference to the Hardy-Weinberg model.
a. Indicate the conditions under which allele frequencies (p and Q) remain constant
from one generation to the next.
b. Calculate, showing all work, the frequencies of the alleles and frequencies of the
genotypes in a population of 100,000 rabbits of which 25,000 are white and
75,000 are agouti. (In rabbits the white color is due to a recessive allele, w, and agouti is
due to a dominant allele, W.)
c. If the homozygous dominant condition were to become lethal, what would happen
to the allelic and genotypic frequencies in the rabbit population after two
generations?
A. Describe the differences between the terms in each of the following pairs.
(1) Coelomate versus acoelomate body plan
(2) Protostome versus deuterostome development
(3) Radial versus bilateral symmetry
B. Explain how each of these pairs of features was important in constructing the
phylogenetic tree shown below. Use specific examples from the tree in your discussion.
Chordata
Arthropoda
Annelida
Echinodermata Mollusca
Nematoda
Rotifera
Platyhelminthes
Cnidaria
Porifera
Discuss how each of the following has contributed to the evolutionary success of
the organisms in which they are found.
a. Seeds
b. Mammalian placenta
c. Diploidy
Evolution is one of the unifying concepts of modern biology. Explain the mechanisms that
lead to evolutionary change. Describe how scientists use each of the following
as evidence for evolution:
1) Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
2) Comparative biochemistry
3) The fossil record
Genetic variation is the raw material for evolution.
a. Explain three cellular and/or molecular mechanisms that introduce variation into the gene pool
of a plant or animal population.
b. Explain the evolutionary mechanisms that can change the composition of the gene pool.
Select two of the following three pairs and discuss the evolutionary replationships between the
two members of each pair you have chosen. In your discussion include structural adaptations
and their functional significance.
PAIR A:
green algae
vascular plants
PAIR B:
prokaryotes
eukaryotes
PAIR C:
amphibians
reptiles
The problems of survival of animals on land are very different from those of survival of animals in
an aquatic environment. Describe four problems associated with animal survival in terrestrial
environments but not in aquatic environments. For each problem, explain an evolutionary solution.
AP Biology Outline for Genetics
GENETICS:
1. Mendelian inheritance: dominance, segregation,
independent assortment
2. Probability
3. Chromosomal basis of inheritance
a. Parallel behavior of genes and chromosomes
b. Sex determination
c. Chromosomal abnormalities
d. Autosomal linkage and sex linkage
4. Epistasis
5. Polygenic Inheritance
6. Multiple alleles, human blood groups
7. Human genetic defects
Essay Questions
1961:
A major concept of the gene theory of inheritance is that the genes are located in
chromosomes. Explain how each of the following helps to establish this idea:
a. A genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in offspring of heterozygotes.
b. The phenomenon of crossing over.
c. Other chromosomal aberrations.
d. The phenomenon of sex determination, as in man.
1963:
a) In corn, a gene for colored (C) kernels is dominant over one for colorless (c)
kernels and a gene for smooth (S) kernels is dominant over one for shrunken
(s) kernels. Describe a controlled genetic experiment to demonstrate that
those genes are linked.
b) Genetic evidence indicates that these genes are linked and that their cross
value is approximately 4%. Describe the process of crossing over and explain
how its percentage is determined. (Labeled diagrams may be used as aids in
explanation.)
1966:
The gene was first thought to be a discrete factor or particle that controls a gross
character of an organism such as flower color or eye color. With the discovery of
specific relationships between genes, enzymes, and proteins, this concept has
changed radically. Cite three specific experiments that illustrate these changes
and explain our present concept of the gene.
1967:
a) Describe in a brief paragraph the characteristics of mutation.
b) List the various alterations in the hereditary material that result in
mutations. Illustrate with a simple diagram.
c) Discuss the ways in which one of the alterations that you list in part b) causes
hereditary changes.
1970:
In most organisms, there are characteristic sets of chromosomes within cell
nuclei. Describe ways in which the kinds or numbers of chromosomes in the
following cells differ from the usual situation and discuss the possible
significance of these differences:
a) children whose cells have an extra autosome
b) cells from different members of a hive of honeybees
c) red blood cells in mammals
d) salivary gland cells in Drosophila
e) cells in tetraploid strains of wheat
f) gametes in humans containing extra sex chromosomes
1972:
Several kinds of organisms have been important in genetics research. How have
studies of microorganisms, peas, Drosophila , and man each made a different
contribution to our knowledge of genetics?
Each year a number of children are born with biological defects that impair normal
function. For THREE of the following conditions, discuss such aspects as the
biological cause, the methods of treatment and possible means of detection and/or
prevention.
a. Phenylketonuria (PKU)
b. Sickle cell anemia
c. Down syndrome
d. Cretinism
e. Erythroblastosis fetalis
f. Blue-baby condition
g. Tay-Sachs
1977:
Discuss three of the following phenomena in which sex chromosomes are involved
with particular reference to their significance or consequences in humans.
a. Sex determination
b. Sex-linked inheritance
c. Formation of Barr bodies (sex chromatin)
d. Variation in kinds and numbers of sex chromosomes
1980:
Describe in detail the process of meiosis as it occurs in an organism with a
diploid chromosome number of 4 (2n = 4). Include labeled diagrams in your
discussion. Indicate when and how each of the following occurs in meiosis:
a. Crossing over
b. Nondisjunction
State the conclusions reached by Mendel in his work on the inheritance of
characteristics. Explain how each of the following deviates from these
conclusions:
a. Autosomal linkage
b. Sex-linked (X-linked) inheritance
c. Polygenic (multiple-gene) inheritance
Discuss Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. Explain how the
events of meiosis I account for the observations that led Mendel to formulate
these laws.
Assume that a particular genetic condition in a mammalian species causes an
inability to digest starch. this disorder occurs with equal frequency in males
and females. In most cases, neither parent of affected offspring has the condition.
(a) Describe the most probable pattern of inheritance for this condition. Explain
your reasoning. Include in your discussion a sample cross(es) sufficient to
verify your proposed pattern.
(b) Explain how mutation could cause this inability to digest starch.
(c) Describe how modern techniques of molecular biology could be used to
determine whether the mutant allele is present in a given individual.
An organism is heterozygous at two genetic loci on different chromosomes.
| | | |
| | --| --|
| | | |
--| --|
| |
a) Explain how these alleles are transmitted by the process of mitosis to daughter
cells.
b) Explain how these alleles are distributed by the process of meiosis to gametes.
c) Explain how the behavior of these two pairs of homologous chromosomes during
meiosis provides the physical basis for Mendel's two laws of inheritance.
Labeled diagrams that are explained in your answer may be useful.
AP Biology Outline for Human Reproduction
HUMAN REPRODUCTION:
A. GAMETOGENESIS
B. MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY
C. PREGNANCY AND PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
D. BIOMEDICAL ADVANCES
Essay Questions
1961:
A. Name and describe the origin, function, and mechanism of operation of the
four extraembryonic membranes of a bird. (Labeled diagrams may be used
as aids in explanation.)
B. For three of these membranes of a bird briefly describe one variation in
either development or function in a mammal, such as a human.
1966:
In vertebrates, changes in the mechanisms of fertilization and embryonic
development have been of adaptive value. Compare these mechanisms and
indicate their contribution to the evolutionary success of the following animals:
A. fish
B. amphibian
C. bird
D. mammal
1974:
Compare and contrast the origin and maturation of the male and female
gametes in a flowering plant and in a mammal.
Describe the role of the hypothalamus, the pituitary hormones, and the ovarian
hormones in the regulation of the human menstrual cycle. Include in your
discussion the concept of feedback control and the way in which fertilization of
the egg alters the menstrual cycle.
Describe negative and positive feedback loops, and discuss how feedback
mechanisms regulate each of the following:
A. The menstrual cycle in a nonpregnant human female
B. Blood glucose levels in humans
AP Biology Outline for Human Systems
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION (EMPHASIS ON VERTEBRATES) OF:
TISSUES, ORGANS, AND SYSTEMS;
HOMEOSTASIS, IMMUNE RESPONSE.
Essay Questions
1959:
The blood, lymph, and other internal fluids have often been referred to as the
"internal environment" of the cells. Many parts of the body are involved in
maintaining the constancy of this internal environment.
Discuss how 1) the kidneys and 2) the endocrine glands help to maintain the
constancy of the internal environment.
1961:
Describe and compare the excretory system of a flatworm (Platyhelminthes), an
earthworm (Annelida), and a grasshopper (Arthropoda).
Include labeled diagrams with your answer.
1961:
Discuss the structure and function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous system of a mammal. What neurohumors are associated with each
system?
Labeled diagrams may be included with your answer.
1962:
a. Compare the digestive system of a planarian with that of an earthworm.
b. Compare the body wall of a hydra with that of a tapeworm.
c. Compare the circulatory system of a crayfish with that of an earthworm.
1964:
a. Make a schematic diagram of a typical myelinated motor neuron. Make the
diagram the size of a full page and label it completely.
b. List the part included in your diagram and describe briefly the function
performed by each one.
c. Discuss the mechanism of synaptic transmission.
1964:
In normal metabolism, the glucose concentration of the blood tends to remain
constant (within a range of 80 to 120 milligrams per hundred milliliters).
Discuss the role of each of the following in maintaining this homeostatic condition:
a. the kidneys
b. the islands of Langerhans
c. the pituitary gland
1964:
Describe the structure and the mechanism of operation of each of the following:
a. a pseudopodium
b. a flagellum
c. a striated muscle cell
1965:
Discuss each of the following as it relates to the functioning of the heartbeat in a
mammal:
a. the autonomic nervous system
b. the structure of cardiac muscle
c. the sinus node, the auriculoventricular bundle (bundle of His)
1966:
Irritability of responsiveness to stimuli is a common characteristic of living organisms.
Among many othes these responses include:
a. Geotropic responses in plants
b. Simple reflex responses in animals
Discuss each of these responses. Your answer should include a description of:
a. the responses
b. an experiments which will demonstrate the responses
c. the mechanisms involved in the responses
1967:
Nitrogenous waste products are excreted by animals in various forms. Many aquatic
animals excrete ammonia, birds and reptiles excrete uric acid, and man excretes urea.
Describe the formation of two of these waste products and discuss the adaptive value
of these three methods of nitrogenous excretion.
1968:
Self-regulatory or homeostatic feedback mechanisms are present in the endocrine,
vascular, and respiratory systems of vertebrates. Describe one such feedback system,
discussing the evidence which indicates that feedback occurs.
1971:
Describe the anatomy and physiology of the autonomic nervous system of
vertebrates. How does this system help a vertebrate to survive?
1971:
The transmission of an impulse from a nerve to the surface of a resting muscle
initiates a contraction in that muscle. Biochemical and biophysical studies of muscle
tissue have resulted in an explanation for muscle contraction known as the sliding-
filament theory.
a. Describe the chemical changes that occur when a nerve impulse is
transmitted to the surface of a resting muscle cell.
b. Describe the internal structure of a muscle fiber as revealed by
electron microscopy.
c. On the basis of this structure, explain the sliding-filament theory.
1973:
The action of organs and organ systems must be coordinated. Discuss the
interaction of factors involved in controlling heart rate and breathing rate in
mammals during periods of relaxation and periods of stress.
1974:
Individual organisms make short-term adjustments to temporary environmental
changes in temperature, moisture, light, or the chemical environment. Choose
any one of these environemtnal factors and describe mechanisms by which
a) animals
and b)plants may adjust to changes in that factor.
1975:
Regulation of biological systems is commonly achieved by means of feedback
control. In each of the following systems, describe how feedback control is used
for regulation, and give a specific example for each system.
a. the size of a population
b. the rate of physiological process
c. the rate of an enzyme reaction
1975:
The immune response of organisms involve antigens, antibodies, and other
factors. Describe the immune response and discuss its role in three of the
following phenomena:
a. blood transfusions
b. Rh incompatibility
c. tissue transplants
1976:
Discuss the intake, transport, exchange, and release of gases in mammals.
1978:
Discuss the mechanism by which a muscle cell contracts or a nerve cell
transmits an impulse. Include in your discussion the relationship between cell
structure and function.
Describe the structure and function of the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine
as digestive and endocrine organs in the human. (For each organ, include the
relevant cell types and their functions.)
1980:
In humans, discuss the transport of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) by the
blood and exchange of these gases between the blood and cells of the body. Include
in your discussion the cellular and fluid composition of the blood.
1981:
Describe the structure and function of the mammalian kidney. Include a
discussion of the regulation of water balance by kidney and hormonal interaction.
1981:
Describe the structure and function of the reflex arc in higher vertebrates.
Include a description of the cell types and a discussion of the mechanism of
transmission of the impulse.
Describe the following mechanisms of response to foreign materials in the human
body.
a. The antigen-antibody response to a skin graft from another person.
b. The reactions of the body leading to inflammation of a wound infected by
bacteria.
Describe the structure of a mammalian respiratory system. Include in your
discussion the
mechanisms of inspiration and expiration.
Discuss the sources and actions of each of the following pairs of hormones in
humans and describe the feedback mechanisms that control their release.
a. Insulin..glucagon
b. Parthyroid hormone..calcitonin
c. Thyrotropin (TSH) ..thyroxine (T4)
Describe the anatomical and functional similarities and differences within each of
the following pairs of structures.
a. Artery..vein
b. Small intestine..colon
c. Skeletal muscle..cardiac muscle
d. Anterior pituitary..posterior pituitary
Beginning at the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction, desribe
the physical and biochemical events involved in the contraction of a skeletal
muscle fiber. Include the structure of the fiber in your discussion.
Describe the processes of fat and protein digestion and product absorption as
they occur in the human stomach and small intestine. Include a discussion of the
enzymatic reactions involved.
Discuss the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that occur at the alveoli and
muscle cells of mammals. Include in your answer a description of the transport
of these gases in the blood.
Describe negative and positive feedback loops, and discuss how feedback
mechanisms regulate each of the following:
a. The menstrual cycle in a nonpregnant human female.
b. Blood glucose levels in humans.
The graph below shows the response of the human immune system to exposure
to an antigen. Use this graph to answer part a and part b of this question.
a. Describe the events that occur during period I as the immune system responds
to the initial exposure to the antigen.
b. Describe the events that occur during period II following a second exposure to
the same antigen.
c. Explain how infection by the AIDS virus (HIV) affects the function of both T
and B lymphocytes.
Biological recognition is important in many processes at the molecular, cellular,
and organismal levels. Select three of the following, and for each of the three that
you have chosen, explain how the process of recognition occurs and give an
example.
a. Organisms recognize others as members of their own species.
b. Neurotransmitters are recognized in the synapse.
c. Antigens trigger antibody responses.
d. Nucleic acids are complementary.
e. Target cells respond to specific hormones.
Survival depends on the ability of an organism to respond to changes in its
environment. Some plants flower in response to changes in day length. Some
mammals may run or fight when frightened. For both of these examples, describe
the physiological mechanism involved in the response.
Many physiological changes occur during exercise.
(a) Design a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis that an exercise
session causes short-term increases in heart rate and breathing rate
in humans.
(b) Explain how at least three organ systems are affected by this increased
physical activity and discuss interactions among these systems.
Discuss how cellular structures, including the plasma membrane,
specialized endoplasmic reticulum, cytoskeletal elements, and mitochondria, function
together in the contraction of skeletal muscle cells.
Structure and function are related in the various organ systems of animals.
Select two of the following four organ systems in vertebrates:
* respiratory
* digestive
* excretory
* nervous
For each of the two systems you choose, discuss the structure and function of two
adaptations that aid in the transport or exchange of molecules (or ions). Be sure to
related structure to function in each example.
AP Biology Outline for Photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
a. Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
b. Role of pigments and plastids
c. Absorption spectra and action spectra
d. Nature and interrelation of light and dark reactions
e. Comparison of C3, C4, and CAM pathways
f. Comparison between respiration and photosynthesis
Essay Questions
1962:
Discuss two experiments in which the use of isotopes as tracers has contributed
to present knowledge of the photosynthetic process. One experiment should deal
with the light phase and the other with the dark phase.
1965:
Discuss the effect of each of the following factors on the rate of photosynthesis
in a living plant:
a. carbon dioxide
b. light intensity
c. temperature
d. mineral nutrition
e. water conservation
1971:
The process of photosynthesis consists of two phases, the light reactions
and the dark reactions.
Discuss each of these groups of reactions and their interrelationships.
1974:
The overall equation for aerobic respiration is usually written as the reverse
of the overall equation for photosynthesis. What features of the biochemical
pathways involved in the processes are the reverse of one another and what
features are not?
1978:
Explain how the molecular reactions of photosynthesis transform light energy
into chemical bond energy. Include in your discussion the relationship between
chloroplast structure and light and dark reactions.
1979:
In relation to plants, describe in detail one way of:
a. measuring the rate of transpiration
b. measuring the rate of photosynthesis
c. separating pigments
Describe the similarities and differences between the biochemical pathways
of aerobic respiration and photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells. Include in your
discussion the major reactions, the end products, and energy transfers.
1983:
Relate the structure of an angiosperm leaf to each of the following.
a. Adaptations for photosynthesis and food storage.
b. Adaptations for food translocation and water transport.
c. Specialized adaptations to a desert environment.
Describe the light reactions of photosynthesis and, for both a C3 and a C4 plant,
trace the path of a carbon dioxide molecule from the point at which it enters a
plant to its incorporation into a glucose molecule. Include leaf anatomy and
biochemical pathways in your discussion of each type of plant.
Membranes are important structural features of cells.
(a) Describe how membrane structure is related to the transport of
materials across a membrane.
(b) Describe the role of membranes in the synthesis of ATP in either
cellular respiration or photosynthesis.
AP Biology Outline for Plant Reproduction and Development
PLANT REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT:
1. Alternation of generations in moss, fern, pine,
and flowering plants
a. Spore and gamete formation
b. Fertilization and sporophyte formation
2. Seed structure and germination
3. Growth and development: hormonal control
Essay Questions
1960:
The seed is the organ having great survival value. Discuss:
a) the structure of seeds from this point of view;
b) the phenomenon and biological importance of dormancy of seeds.
1961:
Trace the evolutionary trends shown by the gametophyte generation in a
bryophyte (a liverwort or moss), a fern, and a pine with respect to:
a) origin and structure
b) mode of nutrition
c) structure and mode of transport of the sperm
d) relative size and longevity compared to the sporophyte generation
1962:
A. Compare the nutrition of bread mold (Rhizopus) with that of the gametophyte
generation of a fern.
B. Compare the conduction of food materials, water, and salts in the sporophyte
generation of a fern.
C. Compare sexual reproduction in an alga (such as Spirogyra or Oedogonium)
with that in a moss.
1964:
During its development from zygote to maturity, a bean plant forms the following
structures:
1. stem
2. secondary roots
3. vascular cambium
4. embryo sac
5. cotyledons
A. Describe briefly the development origin of each of the five.
B. Describe briefly the functions of each of the five.
1965:
Discuss trends in the evolution of the sporophytes and gametophytes,
using a moss, fern, and a flowering plant, as examples emphasizing:
a. structure or morphology
b. mode of nutrition
1965:
The diagram below represents a longitudinal section of a complete flower.
This is one of the most highly evolved structures in the plant kingdom and is at
least partially responsible for the degree of success that these organisms have
achieved in our present environment.
a. Name the numbered parts and give the function of each
in the life cycle of the plant.
b. Tell in what way each of these parts has improved the chances
of survival of this plant compared with a fern.
1967:
Asexual reproduction is common among plants, including the fungi.
Explain four methods of asexual reproduction (either natural or artificial)
and give an example of each.
1968:
Flowering plants have become the predominant, widespread plants of the land
whereas ferns are more restricted in their distribution. Explain the features
of flowering plants that have made them more successful than the ferns.
1969:
For plants, adaptations to a land environment are different from adaptations to
a fresh water environment. Using your knowledge about anatomy, development,
and physiology of angiosperms, discuss the problems in a land existence and
adaptations of angiosperms that have evolved as solutions to these problems.
Seeds that are randomly positioned when planted in a pot of soil placed
on a window sill produce seedlings with downward growing roots and
upward growing shoots. Above ground, the shoots are oriented toward
light. Describe the physiological mechanisms that occur to produce:
a) the downward growth of the roots
b) the upward growth of the shoots
c) the bending of the shoots toward light
1975:
Most flowering plants live on land. Describe and discuss the evolutionary
adaptations that make flowering plants better adapted to life on land than mosses.
1977:
Discuss the reproduction of a flowering plant, including pollination,
fertilization, fruit formation, and seed development.
In the life cycles of a fern and a flowering plant, compare and contrast
each of the following:
a. The gametophyte generation
b. Sperm transport and fertilization
c. Embryo protection
Define the following plant responses and explain the mechanism of
control for each. Cite experimental evidence as part of your discussion.
a) phototropism
b) photoperiodism
Describe the structure of a bean seed and discuss its germination to the seedling
stage. Include in your essay hormonal controls, structural changes, and tissue
differentiation.
Discuss the adaptations that have enabled flowering plants to overcome the
following problems associated with life on land.
a. The absence of an aquatic environment for reproduction
b. The absence of an aquatic environment to support the plant body
c. Dehydration of the plant
Survival depends on the ability of an organism to respond to changes in its
environment. Some plants flower in response to changes in day length. Some
mammals may run or fight when frightened. For both of these examples,
describe the physiological mechanism involved in the response.
AP Outline: Structure and Function in Plants with Emphasis on Angiosperms
1. Root, stem, leaf, flower, seed, and fruit
2. Water and mineral absorption and transport
3. Translocation and storage
4. Tropism and photoperiodicity
Essay Questions
1959:
Considering the respective foles played by the root, stem, and leaf in the life of a
dicotyledonous plant, contrast the organization of these three organs.
1960:
With regard to photoperiodism in plants discuss:
a) one type of plant phenomenon affected;
b) the mechanism of the operation of photoperiodism;
c) the relative importance of intensity and duration of light;
1961:
Discuss the movement of water from the soil through a vascular plant during
transpiration with regard to:
a) tissues traversed
b) processes and forces involved
c) environmental factors which are conducive to a high rate of
transpiration
d) the effects of this process upon the plant
1962:
The opening and closing of the stomata are, in part, associated with the changing
osmotic relationships existing between the guard cells and the surrounding
epidermis and mesophyll.
a) Describe the structure of a guard cell and discuss the osmotic relationships
that tend to result in stomatal opening.
Labeled diagrams may be used as aids in explanation.
b) Stomata are usually closed in the dark but tend to open in the light. Describe
two possible causes of change in the guard cells or in their environment
which result in stomatal opening.
1964:
Each of the five leaf structures indicated in the diagram below is related to either
the raw materials of, or by-products of, or regulation of the rate of leaf
photosynthesis.
a) Name the five structures in order.
b) Discuss how each may regulate or in some way affect the rate of
photosynthesis.
1969:
For plants, adaptations to a land environment are different from adaptations to a
fresh water environment. Using your knowledge about anatomy, development,
and physiology of angiosperms, discuss the problems in a land existence and
adaptations of angiosperms that have evolved as solutions to these problems.
1970:
Since the days when Charles Darwin and his son Francis initiated an investigation
of the phototropic response of stems and of grass coleoptiles, subsequent
investigators have added much to our knowledge of this response. Describe the
mechanism now proposed to explain phototropism in stems or coleoptiles and one
crucial experiment that provided evidence for this mechanism.
Seeds that are randomly positioned when planted in a pot of soil placed on a
window sill produce seedlings with downward growing roots and upward growing
shoots. Above ground, the shoots are oriented toward light. Describe the
physiological mechanisms that occur to produce:
a) the downward growth of the roots
b) the upward growth of the shoots
c) the bending of the shoots toward the light
1974:
Individual organisms make short-term adjustments to temporary environmental
changes in temperature, moisture, light, or the chemical environment. Choose
any one of these environmental factors and describe mechanisms by which plants
may adjust to changes in that factor.
1976:
Discuss the manner in which water, minerals, and organic compounds are
transported in flowering plants.
1978:
Discuss the structural and functional adaptations found in higher plants that
enable them to conserve water under different environmental conditions.
1979:
In relation to plants, describe in detail one way of:
a) measuring the rate of transpiration
b) measuring the rate of photosynthesis
c) separating pigments
1980:
In flowering plants, describe in detail the transport of water, carbohydrates, and
inorganic solutes (nitrates, for example). Discuss the theories that have been
proposed to explain how these substances are transported.
Relate the structure of an angiosperm leaf to each of the following:
a) Adaptations for photosynthesis and food storage
b) Adaptations for food translocation and water transport
c) Specialized adaptations to a desert environment
Define the following plant responses and explain the mechanism of control for
each. Cite experimental evidence as part of your discussion.
a) Phototropism
b) Photoperiodism
Describe the structure of a bean seed and discuss its germination
to the seedling stage. Include in your essay hormonal controls,
structural changes, and tissue differentiation.
Describe the effects of plant hormones on plant growth and development. Design
an experiment to demonstrate the effect of one of these plant hormones on plant
growth and development.
Trace the pathway in a flowering plant as the water moves from the soil through
the tissues of the root, stem, and leaves to the atmosphere. Explain the
mechanisms involved in conducting water through these tissues.
Discuss the adaptations that have enabled flowering plants to overcome the
following problems associated with life on land.
a) The absence of an aquatic environment for reproduction.
b) The absence of an aquatic environment to support the plant body
c) Dehydration of the plant
A group of students designed an experiment to measure transpiration rates in a
particular species of herbaceous plant. Plants were divided into groups and were
exposed to the following conditions.
Group I - Room conditions
(light, low humidity, 200 C, and little air movement)
Group II - Room conditions with increased humidity
Group III - Room conditions with increased air movement (fan)
Group IV - Room conditions with additional light
The cumulative water loss due to transpiration of water from each plant was
measured at 10-minute intervals for 30 minutes. Water loss was expressed as
milliliters of water per square centimeter of leaf surface area. The data for all
plants in Group I (room conditions) were averaged. The average cumulative
water loss by the plants in Group I is presented in the table below.
Average Cumulative Water Loss by the Plants in Group I
Time (minutes) Average Cumulative Water Loss
(milliliters H2/centimeter2)
10 3.5 x 10-4
20 7.7 x 10-4
30 10.6 x 10-4
a. Construct and label a graph using the data for Group I. Using the same set of
axes, draw and label three additional lines representing the results that you
would predict for Groups II, III, and IV.
b. Explain how biological and physical processes are responsible for the
differences between each of your predictions and the data for Group I.
c. Explain how the concept of water potential is used to account for the movement
of water from the plant stem to the atmosphere during transpiration.
Angiosperms (flowering plants) and vertebrates obtain nutrients from their
environment in different ways:
(A) Discuss the type of nutrition and the nutritional requirements of angiosperms and
vertebrates.
(B) Describe 2 structural adaptations in angiosperms for obtaining nutrients from the
environment. Relate structure to function.
(C) Interdependence in nature is evident in symbiosis. Explain two symbiotic relationships
that aid in nutrient uptake, using examples from angiosperms and/or vertebrates.
(Both examples may be angiosperms, both may be vertebrates, or one may be from
each group.
1996: PLANT GROWTH EXPERIMENT
Numerous environmental variables influence plant growth. Three students each planted a seedling of the same genetic variety in the same type of container with equal amounts of soil from the same source. Their goal was to maximize their seedling's growth by manipulating environmental conditions. Their data are shown below.
Plant Seedling Mass (grams)
Day 1 Day 30
Student A 4 24
Student B 5 35
Student C 4 64
a. Identify three different environmental variables that could account for differences in the mass of the seedlings at day 30. Then choose one of these variables and design an experiment to test the hypothesis that your variable affects growth of these seedlings.
b. Discuss the results you would expect if your hypothesis is correct. Then provide a physiological explanation for the effect of your variable on plant growth.